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THE PANAMA CANAL 

Pictorial View of the 
World's Greatest Engineering Feat 

Linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 

With a Brief History and Description of the 
Gigantic Undertaking 

BY 

THOMAS H. RUSSELL, A. M., LL. D. 

Member National Geographic Society 



THE HAMMING PUBLISHING CO. 
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 



/ 
/ 
/ 



/ 






Copyright, 1913, 

BY 

THE HAMMING PUBLISHING CO. 



/3-^o^5~ 



(§fr.A3309[ 



55 



THE PANAMA CANAL 



m 



HE Panama Canal will soon be opened for 
navigation, and the passage of the first ves- 
sel from ocean to ocean through its hos- 
pitable locks and placid waters will signalize the 
successful completion of the greatest engineering- 
feat in the world's history. Naturally enough, it 
will afford an occasion for pardonable pride and 
patriotic enthusiasm to every citizen of the United 
States, whose government has carried through this 
gigantic undertaking in spite of almost insuperable 
difficulties. 

While the official date of opening the Canal has 
been set for January i, 1915, it is the intention to 
allow vessels to utilize the new waterway just as 
soon as practicable. Present indications seem to 
bear out the opinion expressed by Colonel George 
W. Goethals, U. S. A., chairman and chief engineer 
of the Isthmian Canal Commission, that this can 
be accomplished during the latter half of 1913. 
Shipping interests all over the world will be advised 



as soon as the Commission feels assured that ves- 
sels can be passed without unnecessary delay. 

The Panama Canal is indeed a tremendous work, 
dwarfing all other undertakings of human skill and 
labor. It links the oceans that have been hitherto 
communicable one with the other only at the ex- 
pense of weeks of time and a mint of- money. Time 
is the essence of all business movements nowa- 
days — now more than ever before — and the time 
that will be saved daily in transit between the great 
trading centers by the opening of the Canal is of 
almost inestimable value. 

In a recent message to Congress the President of 
the United States said that the first passage of 
ships through the Canal would mark an important 
era, not in the history of this country alone, but 
in that of the civilized world ; and it will undoubt- 
edly make a tremendous difference in the attitude 
of the nations that are commonly regarded as con- 
stituting the backbone of civilization. 



When it is possible, for instance, to send from 
New York to San Francisco a great battleship or a 
fleet for the protection of our Western coast, in a 
small fraction of the time it used to take, that alone 
constitutes a marvelous advance in our methods 
and means of self-defense. And that is the kind 
of advance in martial facility that appeals to other 
nations and influences their attitude, — nations that 
may possibly contemplate the angles of attack upon 
the United States, — not now, let us hope and be- 
lieve, but at some time in the future. Statesmen of 
the elder variety always figure ahead, and the 
defensive, non-aggressive nation must always pre- 
pare its bulwarks of defense, just as the offensive 
nation prepares its artillery. 

The United States, seeking trouble with none, 
but offering a means of facile interoceanic transit 
to all, asks simply that it may enjoy the fruits of 
its own enterprise — and no self-respecting nation 
would ask less. Suppose the conditions were 
changed. Suppose some European nation, for in- 
stance, had built the great passageway between two 
oceans. Does anyone imagine for a single instant 
that that nation would surrender one jot or tittle 
of its right to control the Canal ? Suppose France 



had succeeded in putting through a world's high- 
way for commerce from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
across Central American territory. Does anyone 
suppose for a moment that France, or Germany, or 
any other nation that had thus opened up a water- 
way of universal interest would not have retained 
the utmost possible benefit from its operation? 

And why should the United States surrender one 
bit of the advantage it has gained by taking over 
from another power the privilege — for it is an 
international privilege — of building this great and 
wonderful link between the mighty oceans of the 
western world? 

Soon to be opened, as the result of American 
enterprise and ingenuity, after failure had marked 
the attempts of the greatest European canal build- 
ers, — the Panama Canal will stand as an ever- 
lasting monument to American genius, the genius 
of construction that leads the world today; that 
erects gigantic structures in all the countries that 
have faith and capital to invest in modern methods ; 
the constructive genius that knows no difficulties, 
that could reconstruct the Pyramids or the hang- 
ing gardens of Babylon, and that would make a 



night's work of building a second Sphinx, if the 
utility of the object could be demonstrated. 

It is this constructive genius that is immortalized 
in the Panama Canal. America can build anything 
the world wants, and has the men and the money to 
do it — and the Old World probably needed the les- 
son. It needed to be taught that there are here in 
the United States the engineers to plan, the build- 
ers and mechanics to construct, and the ability and 
energy to carry out great enterprises that the Old 
World dreams about decade after decade and knows 
not how to realize. 

Four hundred years had passed since first the idea 
of a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific across 
the Isthmus that separates the north and south 
American continents first entered the head of civi- 
lized man. There were four centuries of talk about 
it — and little done until a practical, level-headed 
American occupying the Presidential chair of the 
United States saw not only the opportunity, but 
the feasibility of a definite plan — and was pos- 
sessed of sufficient American initiative to go ahead 
with the work, even though it involved the recog- 



nition of a young Republic before any of the older 
sister nations had had their say. 

So the United States stepped in, made the 
Republic of Panama possible, and secured the 
Canal Zone in which we proceeded to build the 
big waterway that will make our possessions more 
and more valuable as the years elapse. 

Now the time approaches when we are to see 
the solid success of our endeavors ; when ships shall 
pass from ocean to ocean under the American flag, 
and all the world shall pay us tribute for our dar- 
ing and our skill. We have succeeded where others 
have failed ; but in our triumph there is no note 
of undue exultation, no idea of boasting of our 
accomplishment ; — simply a perfectly proper ex- 
pression of pride in our achievement, a pride we 
have a right to feel as a nation of doers as well as 
tninkers ; and we extend with the expression of our 
delight in achievement a cordial invitation to the 
nations of the world to come and enjoy with us the 
fruits of our high endeavor. 

In building the Panama Canal we know that we 
have conferred a favor on humanity. We have 



helped to annihilate distance. We have aided in 
bringing the nations closer together. We have 
made trade and commerce easier and more profit- 
able for all. We have wrought not for ourselves 
alone, but for civilization — and we present the 
result in an accomplished fact where others the- 
orized and fell down. 

We dedicate our work for the use and benefit of 
our own and succeeding generations. The first 
ship that passes through the Panama Canal, even 
though it be an American battleship, will be 
freighted with a message of peace and good will to 
all the earth — and they who cannot read that mes- 
sage aright deserve none of the benefits that will 
flow from the opening of the waterway. 

In this book there is presented a pictorial review 
of the great Canal in the process of building. Com- 
pleted, the Canal will be a picture. In the making 
it was not always pretty and the workers toiled 
and dug in the sweat of their brow. It is believed 
that none can view these pictures without being 
impressed with the magnitude of the work, with 
its difficulties and its dangers, and with the mar- 
velous results of the engineering and administra- 



tive skill displayed by the men of the United States 
Army who finally, after many had tried and been 
found wanting, carried this mammoth undertaking 
to a successful conclusion. 



HISTORY OF THE CANAL. 

The history of the Isthmian Canal is a remark- 
able record of persistent human endeavor, covering 
four centuries of time, marked by many failures, 
and now at last about to be crowned with success. 

The project has long been recognized as "an 
indispensable factor in the future of the American 
continent." Spain, England, Portugal, and France 
have all embarked upon the work, either directly 
or by giving aid and encouragement to their repre- 
sentatives, and failed. The time for success had 
not yet arrived, for even if the funds with which 
to prosecute the work had been unlimited, the diffi- 
culties were then too great for engineering and 
medical science to solve. 

It was President Grant who first advanced the 
policy of "an American canal under American con- 
trol." President Roosevelt, voicing the sentiments 




"Photo by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 

Col. George W. Goethals, U. S. A. 

Chief Engineer and Chairman Isthmian Canal Commission 

of the entire American people, lent the aid of the 
United States in undertaking the work, and Presi- 



dent Taft enthusiastically advanced the project, 
which will be completed, in all human probability, 
under the administration of President Wilson. 

The idea of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama 
was born in the days of Balboa, who crossed the 
isthmus in 1513, but the project met with opposition 
in Spain under King Philip II., and was laid on the 
shelf for two centuries or more. In 1814 it was 
revived, but by that time Spain had lost her Central 
and South American colonies, and ceased to be a 
factor in canal affairs. 

England investigated Isthmian conditions with 
reference to a canal early in the nineteenth century, 
through Lord Nelson and Baron von Humboldt, but 
nothing practical resulted from their reports. It is 
interesting to note that Goethe about this time 
prophesied an Isthmian canal under American con- 
trol. 

In 1835 the United States first became interested 
in the project through a resolution introduced in 
the Senate by Henry Clay, but the panic of 1837 
effectually estopped action contemplated at that 
time. 



In 1838 a concession was granted to a French 
company for the construction of highways, rail- 
roads or a canal across the Isthmus, but the con- 
cession lapsed for lack of capital. 

The year 1855 saw the opening of the Panama 
Railroad, constructed by Americans across the Isth- 
mus. The concession of the company gave it con- 
trol of the Panama route for a canal, but with rail- 
road communication firmly established and finan- 
cially successful, the idea of canal construction was 
relegated to the background. 

Meanwhile other canal routes were exploited by 
a small army of promoters. Altogether nineteen 
different routes have been suggested and received 
more or less attention. Of these, the Tehuantepec, 
Nicaragua, Panama, and Darien projects are the 
most important, and Nicaragua has been Panama's 
principal rival in the last thirty years. 

In 1869 the United States again took up the canal 
question, and President Grant appointed an inter- 
oceanic canal commission. But nothing definite was 
done and France stepped into the arena in 1876, 
and remained in control of operations for twenty- 
eight years, until 1904, when the French retired, 



defeated, in favor of the United States. This in- 
cluded the period of effort of the great French 
engineer, Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez 
Canal. His unsuccessful aim was to build a sea- 
level canal across the Isthmus. 

Progress having ceased at Panama under the sec- 
ond French Canal Company, on March 3, 1899, tne 
Congress of the United States passed an act author- 
izing the President to make full and complete in- 
vestigations of the Isthmus of Panama with a view 
to the construction of a canal to connect the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans. 

This marks the opening of the last chapter in 
the construction of the Panama Canal, the end of 
which is now, by the early completion of the canal, 
in sight. The commission appointed in accordance 
with the above act was called upon to investigate 
particularly the Nicaragua and the Panama routes 
and to report which was the more practicable and 
feasible, and the cost. In November, 1901, it re- 
ported in favor of the Nicaragua route. The price 
fixed by the Panama Canal Company was $109,000,- 
000. By subsequent negotiations the French com- 
pany was induced to reduce its price to $40,000,000, 



and the commission in January, 1902, submitted a 
supplemental report in favor of the Panama route. 

Satisfactory arrangements were completed for 
the purchase of the French company's rights, etc., 
for $40,000,000, and negotiations with the Republic 
of Colombia were carried on to secure other neces- 
sary rights and privileges not held by the French 
company. After a long delay, a satisfactory treaty 
was formulated, which was rejected by Colombia 
in 1903. 

The province of Panama, an integral part of 
Colombia, thereupon seceded and organized an 
independent republic, with an area of about 31,000 
square miles and a population which at present is 
stated to be 419,000. This resulted in the negotia- 
tion of a satisfactory treaty with the new Republic 
of Panama, including the payment, under certain 
terms, of $10,000,000 by the United States to the 
Republic of Panama and an annual payment of 
$250,000 beginning nine years after the signing of 
the treaty. Under this treaty the United States 
guaranteed the independence of the Republic of 
Panama and secured absolute control over what is 
now called the Canal Zone, a strip of land about 



10 miles in width, with the canal through the center, 
and 45 miles in length from sea to sea, with an area 
of about 448 square miles. The United States also 
has jurisdiction over the adjacent water for three 
miles from shore. 

The act of Congress of 1902 placed entire juris- 
diction in regard to the construction of the canal in 
the hands of the President of the United States, the 
particular functions in regard thereto being exer- 
cised by a commission of seven members. For 
convenience in administration the canal operations 
were placed under the Secretary of War. 

The formal transfer of the property of the French 
Canal Company to the United States took place on 
May 4, 1904, and the first two and one-half years 
thereafter, or until January, 1907, were devoted 
largely to the work of preparation. 

Meanwhile the lock type of canal had been de- 
cided upon, and on June 29, 1906, its construction 
was authorized by Congress, and promptly entered 
upon by the Isthmian Canal Commission, which, 
with Col. George W. Goethals, U. S. A., as chairman 
and chief engineer, will soon see the full fruition of 
its splendid patriotic endeavors. T. H. R. 



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Map Showing Isthmus with Completed Canal. 



PLAN OF THE CANAL 

The entire length of the Panama Canal from 
deep water in the Atlantic to' deep water in the 
Pacific is about 50 miles. Its length from shore- 
line to shore-line is about 40 miles. In passing 
through it from the Atlantic to the Pacific, a ves- 
sel will enter the approach channel in Limon Bay, 
which will have a bottom width of 500 feet and 
extend to Gatun, a /distance of about seven miles. 
At Gatun, it will enter a series of three locks in 
flight and be lifted 85 feet to the level of Gatun 
Lake. It may steam at full speed through this 
lake, in a channel varying from 1,000 to 500 feet 
in width, for a distance of 'about 24 miles, to Bas 
Obispo, where it will enter the Culebra Cut. It 
will pass through the Cut, a distance of about nine 
miles, in a channel with a bottom width of 300 feet, 
to Pedro Miguel. There it will enter a lock and be 
lowered 303/3 feet to a small lake, at an elevation 
of 54J/3 feet above sea level, and will pass through 
this for about \ x /z miles to Miraflores. There it 
will enter two' locks in series and be lowered to sea 



level, passing out into the Pacific through a channel 
about 8 J / 2 miles in length, with a bottom width 
of 500 feet. The depth of the approach channel 
on the Atlantic side, where the maximum tidal 
oscillation is 2.y 2 feet, will be 41 feet at mean tide, 
and on the Pacific side, where the maximum oscil- 
lation is 21 feet, the depth will be 45 feet at mean 
tide. 

Throughout the first 16 miles from Gatun, the 
width of the Lake channel will be 1,000 feet; then 
for 4 miles it will be 800 feet, and for 4 miles 
more, to the northern entrance of Culebra Cut at 
Bas Obispo, it will be 500 feet. The depth will 
vary from 85 to 45 feet. The water level in the 
Cut will be that of the Lake, the depth 45 feet, 
and the bottom width of the channel 300 feet. 

Three hundred feet is the minimum bottom 
width of the Canal. This width begins about half 
a mile above Pedro Miguel locks and extends about 
8 miles through Culebra Cut, with the exception 
that at all angles the channel is widened sufficiently 
to allow a thousand-foot vessel to make the turn. 
The Cut has eight angles, or about one to every 
mile. The 300- foot widths are only on tangents 



11 



between the turning basins at the angles. The 
smallest of these angles is 7° 36', and the 
largest 30 . 

GATUN DAM 

The Gatun Dam, which will form Gatun Lake by 
impounding the waters of the Chagres and its 
tributaries, will be nearly i 1 /, miles long, measured 
on its crest, nearly *4 mile wide at its base, about 
400 feet wide at the water surface, about 100 feet 
wide at the top, and its crest, as planned, will be at 
an elevation of 115 feet above mean sea level, or 
30 feet above the normal level of the Lake. Of 
the total length of the Dam only 500 feet, or one- 
fifteenth, will be exposed to the maximum water 
head of 85 feet. The interior of the Dam is being 
formed of a natural mixture of sand and clay, 
dredged by hydraulic process from pits above and 
below the Dam, and placed between two large 
masses of rock and miscellaneous material obtained 
from steam shovel excavation at various points 
along the Canal. The top and upstream slope will 
be thoroughly riprapped. The entire Dam will con- 
tain about 21,000,000 cubic yards of material. 



The Spillway is a concrete lined opening, 1,200 
feet long and 300 feet wide, cut through a hill of 
rock nearly in the center of the Dam, the bottom 
of the opening being 10 feet above sea level. It 
will contain about 225,000 cubic yards of concrete. 
During the construction of the Dam, all the water 
discharged from the Chagres and its tributaries 
will flow through this opening. When construction 
has advanced sufficiently to permit the Lake to be 
formed, the Spillway will be closed with a concrete 
dam, fitted with gates and machinery for regulat- 
ing the water level of the Lake. 

WATER SUPPLY OF GATUN LAKE 

Gatun Lake will impound the waters of a basin 
comprising 1,320 square miles. When the surface 
of the water is at 85 feet above sea level, the Lake 
will have an area of about 164 square miles, and 
will contain about 206 billion cubic feet of water. 
During eight or nine months of the year, the lake 
will be kept constantly full by the prevailing rains, 
and consequently a surplus will need to be stored 
for only three or four months of the dry season. 



12 



The smallest run-off of water in the basin, during 
the past 21 years, as measured at Gatun, was about 
146 billion cubic feet. In 1910 the run-off was 
360 billion cubic feet, or a sufficient quantity to 
fill the lake one and a half times. The water sur- 
face of the Lake will be maintained during the 
rainy season at 87 feet above sea level, making 
the minimum channel depth in the Canal 47 feet. 
As navigation can be carried on with about 41 feet 
of water, there will be stored for dry season sur- 
plus over five feet of water. Making due allow- 
ance for evaporation, seepage, leakage at the gates, 
and power consumption, this would be ample for 
41 passages daily through the locks, using them at 
full length, or about 58 lockages a day when partial 
length is used, as would be usually the case, and 
when cross filling from one lock to the other 
through the central wall is employed. This would 
be a larger number of lockages than would be pos- 
sible in a single day. The average number of lock- 
ages through the Sault Ste. Marie Canal on the 
American side was 37 per day in the season of navi- 
gation of 1909, which was about eight months long. 
The average number of ships passed was about 



1^2 per lockage. The freight carried was more 
than 30,000,000 tons. The Suez Canal passed about 
12 vessels per day, with a total tonnage for the 
year of 15,500,000. 

DAMS ON PACIFIC SIDE 

The water level of Gatun Lake, extending 
through the Culebra Cut, will be maintained at 
the south end by an earth dam connecting the locks 
at Pedro Miguel with the high ground to the west- 
ward, about 1,400 feet long, with its crest at an 
elevation of 105 feet above mean tide. A concrete 
core wall, containing about 700 cubic yards, will 
connect the locks with the hills to the eastward ; 
this core wall will rest directly on the rock surface 
and is designed to prevent percolation through the 
earth, the surface of which is above the Lake level. 

A small lake between the locks at Pedro Miguel 
and Miraflores will be formed by dams connecting 
the walls of Miraflores locks with the high ground 
on either side. The dam to the westward will be 
of earth, about 2,700 feet long, having its crest 
about 15 feet above the water in Miraflores Lake. 



13 



The east dam will be of concrete, containing about 
75,000 cubic yards ; will be about 500 feet long, and 
will form a spillway for Miraflores Lake, with crest 
gates similar to those at the Spillway of the Gatun 
Dam. 

THE LOCKS 

■ There will be six double locks in the Canal ; 
three pairs in flight at Gatun, with a combined lift 
of 85 feet ; one pair at Pedro Miguel, with a lift 
of 303/3 feet, and two pairs at Miraflores, with a 
combined lift of 54% feet at mean tide. The usable 
dimensions of all are the same — a length of 1,000 
feet, and width of no feet. Each lock will be a 
chamber, with walls and floor of concrete, and 
mitering gates at each end. 

The side walls will be 45 to 50 feet wide at the 
surface of the floor; will be perpendicular on the 
face, and will narrow from a point 24}^ feet above 
the floor until they are 8 feet wide at the top. The 
middle wall will be 60 feet wide, approximately 81 
feet high, and each face will be vertical. At a 
point 42^ feet above the surface of the floor, and 



15 feet above the top of, the middle culvert, this 
wall will divide into two parts, leaving a space down 
the center much like the letter "U," which will be 
19 feet wide at the bottom and 44 feet wide at the 
top. In this center space will be a tunnel divided 
into three stories, or galleries. The lowest gallery 
will be for drainage ; the middle, for the wires that 
will carry the electric current to operate the gate 
and valve machinery installed in the center wall, 
and the upper will be a > passageway for the 
operators. 

The lock gates will he steel structures 7 feet, 
thick, 65 feet long, and from 47 to 82 feet high. 
They will weigh from 300 to 600 tons each. Ninety- 
two leaves will be required for the entire Canal, 
the total weighing 57,000 tons. Intermediate gates 
will be used in the locks, in order to save water 
and time, if desired, in locking small vessels 
through, the gates being so placed as to divide the 
locks into chambers 600 and 400 feet long, respec- 
tively. Ninety-five per cent of the vessels navigat- 
ing the high seas are less than 600 feet long. In 
the construction of the locks, it is estimated that 
there will be used approximately 4,2oo;ooo cubic 



14 



yards of concrete, requiring about the same num- 
ber of barrels of cement. 

Electricity will be used to tow all vessels into 
and through the locks, and to operate all gates and 
valves, power being generated by water turbines 
from the head created by Gatun Lake. Vessels 
will not be permitted to enter or pass through the 
locks under their own power, but will be towed 
through by electric locomotives running on cog- 
rails laid on the tops of the lock walls. There will 
be two towing tracks for each flight of locks, one 
on the side and one on the middle wall. On each 
side wall there will be one return track and on the 
middle wall a third common to both of the twin 
locks. All tracks will run continuously the entire 
length of the respective flights and will extend 
some distance on the guide approach walls at each 
end. The number of locomotives used will vary 
with the size of the vessel. The usual number 
required will be four ; two ahead, one on each wall, 
imparting motion to the vessel, and two astern, 
one on each wall, to aid in keeping the vessel in a 
central position and to bring it to rest when entirely 
within the lock chamber. They will be equipped 



with a slip drum, towing windlass and hawser which 
will permit the towing line to be taken in or paid 
out without actual motion of the locomotive on 
the track. 

The locks will be filled and emptied through a 
system of culverts. One culvert 254 sq. ft. in area 
of cross section, about the area of the Hudson 
River tunnels of the Pennsylvania Railroad, extends 
the entire length of each of the middle and side 
walls and from each of these large culverts there 
are several smaller culverts, 33 to 44 sq. ft. in area, 
which extend under the floor of the lock and com- 
municate with the lock chamber through holes in 
the floor. The large culverts are controlled at 
points near the miter gates by large valves and 
each of the small culverts extending from the mid- 
dle wall culvert into the twin chambers is controlled 
by a cylindrical valve. The large culvert in the 
middle wall feeds in both directions through later- 
als, thus permitting the passage of water from one 
twin lock to another, effecting a saving of water. 
{See cuts.) 

To fill a lock the- valves at the upper end are 
opened and the lower valves closed. The water 



15 




Catun Dam, Spillway and Locks. 



16 






flows from the upper pool through the large cul- 
verts into the small lateral culverts and thence 
through the holes in the floor into the lock cham- 
ber. To empty a lock the valves at the upper end 
are closed and those at the lower end are opened 
and the water flows into the lower lock or pool in a 
similar manner. This system distributes the water 
as evenly as possible over the entire horizontal area 
of the lock and reduces the disturbance in the cham- 
ber when it is being filled or emptied. 

The depth of water over the miter sills of the 
locks will be 40 feet in salt water and 41,^3 feet in 
fresh water. 

The average time of filling and emptying a lock 
will be about fifteen minutes, without opening the 
valves so suddenly as to create disturbing currents 
in the locks or approaches. The time required to 
pass a vessel through all the locks is estimated at 
3 hours ; one hour and a half in the three locks at 
Gatun, and about the same time in the three locks 
on the Pacific side. The time of passage of a ves- 
sel through the entire Canal is estimated as ranging 
from 10 to 12 hours, according to the size of the 
ship, and the rate of speed at which it can travel 




MODEL OF PEDRO MIGUEL LOCKS 

The lock on the right is nearly filled for an up- 
ward lockage. Four electric locomotives are shown 
securely holding a 10,000-ton ship, and ready to 



17 



tow it out of the lock, so soon as the upper gates 
are opened. In the foreground is shown a protec- 
tive chain; at the entrance to the lock on the left 
is shown a caisson in position and acting as a bar- 
rier between the high level above and the low level 
below the lock. 

On the right is shown an emergency dam in its 
normal position when not in use and on the left the 
other dam is shown swung in position across the 
lock with the wicket girder down in readiness to 
support the wickets or gates which complete the 
barrier. 

SLIDES 

There are in all twenty-one slides along the 
Culebra Cut. Twelve cover areas varying from 
one to forty-seven acres, and nine cover areas of 
less than one acre each, making in all a total of 
one hundred and forty-nine acres. The largest is 
the Cucaracha slide, on the east side of the Canal, 
which covers an area of forty-seven acres, and 
which has broken back 1,820 feet from the center 



line of the Canal. This slide, according to French 
records, started as early as 1884, and has given the 
Americans considerable trouble since they began 
work. Over two million cubic yards have been 
removed by the Americans, and the slide is still 
active. The next largest slide is a combination of 
two slides on the west side of the Cut at Culebra, 
just north of Contractor's Hill, covering about 
twenty-eight acres. Over two million cubic yards 
have been removed from this slide, and it is esti- 
mated that one million cubic yards are still in 
motion. On the east side of the Cut, north of Gold 
Hill, is another large slide covering an area of 
about seventeen acres which has broken back 1,200 
feet from the center line of the Canal. Over 416,- 
000 cubic yards have been taken out of this slide 
and about three-quarters of a million more are still 
in motion. The total distance across the Cut at this 
point from back to back of slides is 1,950 feet. In 
all, over nine million cubic yards have been taken 
out since July, 1905, because of slides, and over 
three million cubic yards are still in motion. 



18 




S/de Wall of Locks Compared with Six-story 
Building. 



CAPACITY OF STEAM SHOVELS AND 
DIRT TRAINS 

There are several classes of steam shovels 
engaged in excavating work, equipped with dippers 
ranging in capacity from ij4 cubic yards to 5 cubic 
yards, and a trenching shovel, which has a dipper 
with a capacity of J4 of a cubic yard. 

Each cubic yard, place measurement, of average 
rock weighs about 3,900 pounds; of earth, about 
3,000 pounds ; of "the run of the cut," about 3,600 
pounds, and is said to represent about a two-horse 
cart load. Consequently, a five-cubic yard dipper, 
when full, carries 8.7 tons of rock, 6.7 tons of earth, 
and 8.03 tons of "the run of the cut." 

Three classes of cars are used in hauling spoil — 
flat cars with one high side, which are unloaded 
by plows operated by a cable upon a winding drum, 
and two kinds of dump cars, one large and one 
small. The capacity of the flat cars is 19 cubic 
yards; that of the large dump cars, 17 cubic yards, 
and that of the small dump cars, 10 cubic yards. 
The flat car train is ordinarily composed of 20 cars 
in hauling; from the cut at Pedro Miguel, and of 



19 



21 cars in hauling from the cut at Matachin. The 
large dump train is composed of 27 cars, and the 
small dump train of 35 cars. 

The average load of a train of flat cars, in haul- 
ing the mixed material known as "the run of the 
cut," is 610.7 tons (based on a 20-car train) ; of a 
train of large dump cars, 737.68 tons, and of a 
train of small dumps, 562.5 tons. 

The average time consumed in unloading a train 
of flat cars is from 7 to 15 minutes; in unloading 
a train of large dump cars, 15 to 40 minutes, and 
in unloading a train of small dump cars, 6 to 56 
minutes. The large dump cars are operated by 
compressed air power furnished by the air pump 
of the locomotive, while the small dump cars are 
operated by hand. 

The record day's work for one steam shovel was 
that of March 22, 1910, 4,823 cubic yards of rock 
(place measurement), or 8,395 tons. The highest 
daily record in the Central Division was on March 
11, 191 1, when 51 steam shovels and 2 cranes 
equipped with orange peel buckets excavated an 
aggregate of 79, 484 cubic yards, or 127,742 tons. 
During this day, 333 loaded trains and as many 



empty trains were run to and from the dumping 
grounds. 

TOTAL AMOUNT OF EXCAVATION 

The following was the estimated excavation 
required May 4, 1904, based on the plans for the 
lock canal : 

Cubic feet. 

Atlantic Division 47,523,000 

Central Division 106,417,000 

Pacific Division 58,287,000 

Total 212,227,000 

Of this excavation, 180,423,874 cubic feet had 
been accomplished by Americans to October 1, 
1912, leaving approximately 31,803,126 cubic feet 
remaining to be excavated. 

The amount of material taken out by the Old 
and New Panama Canal Companies (French) was 
78,146,960 cubic yards, of which it is estimated 29,- 
908,000 cubic yards has been utilized in the adopted 
plan of Canal ; making the total excavation for the 
Canal 242,135,000 cubic yards. 



20 



BREAKWATERS 

Breakwaters are under construction at the At- 
lantic and Pacific entrances of the Canal. That in 
Limon Bay, or Colon harbor, extends into the bay 
from Toro Point, at an angle of 42 degrees and 
53 minutes northward from a base line drawn from 
Toro Point to Colon light, and will be 10,500 feet 
in length, or 11,700 feet, including the shore con- 
nection, with a width at the top of fifteen feet and 
a height above mean sea level of ten feet. The 
width at the bottom will depend largely on the 
depth of water. It will contain approximately 
2,840,000 cubic yards of rock, the core being 
formed of rock quarried on the mainland near 
Toro Point, armored with hard rock from Porto 
Bello. Work began on the breakwater in August, 
1910, and on May 1, 191 1, the fill had been extended 
4,214 feet. The estimated cost is $5,500,000. A 
second breakwater has been proposed for Limon 
Bay, but this part of the project has not been for- 
mally acted upon. The purpose of the breakwaters 
is to convert Limon Bay into a safe anchorage, to 



protect shipping in the harbor of Colon, and ves- 
sels making the north entrance to the Canal, from 
the violent northers that are likely to prevail from 
October to January, and to reduce to a minimum 
the amount of silt that may be washed into the 
dredged channel. 

The breakwater at the Pacific entrance will 
extend from Balboa to Naos Island, a distance of 
about 17,000 feet, or a little more than three miles. 
It will lie from 900 to 2,700 feet east of and for 
the greater part of the distance nearly parallel to 
the axis of the Canal prism; will vary from 20 to 
40 feet in height above mean sea level, and will be 
from 50 to 3,000 feet wide at the top. It is esti- 
mated that it will contain about 18,000.000 cubic 
yards of earth and rock, all of which will be brought 
from Culebra Cut. It is constructed for a two- 
fold purpose; first, to divert cross currents that 
would carry soft material from the shallow har- 
bor of Panama into the Canal channel; second, to 
insure a more quiet harbor at Balboa. Work was 
begun on it in May, 1908. On May 1, 191 1, it had 
been constructed for a distance of 13,000 feet. 



21 



CANAL FORCE, QUARTERS AND SUP- 
PLIES 

The Canal force is recruited and housed by the 
Quartermaster's Department, which has two gen- 
eral branches, labor and quarters, and material 
and supplies. Through the labor and quarters 
branch there have been brought to the Isthmus 
43,432 laborers, of whom 11,797 came from Europe, 
19,448 from Barbados, the balance from other 
islands in the West Indies and from Colombia. No 
recruiting is now required, the supply of labor on 
the Isthmus being ample. 

In the month of August, 1912, there were ap- 
proximately 45 ,000 employes on the Isthmus on 
the rolls of the Commission and of the Panama 
Railroad Company, about 5,000 of whom were 
Americans. There were actually at work on Sep- 
tember 25, 1912, 35,861 men, 29,571 for the Com- 
mission, and 6,290 for the Panama Railroad Com- 
pany. Of the 29,571 men working for the Com- 
mission, 4,166 were on the gold roll, which com- 
prises those paid in United States currency, and 
25,405 were on the silver roll, which comprises those 
paid on the basis of Panaman currency or its 
equivalent. 



The gold force is made up of the officials, clerical 
force, construction men, and skilled artisans of the 
Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Rail- 
road Company. Practically all of them are Ameri- 
cans. The silver force represents the unskilled 
laborers of the Commission and the Panama Rail- 
road Company. Of these, about 4,500 are Euro- 
peans, mainly Spaniards, with a few Italians and 
other races. The remainder, about 25,000, are West 
Indians, about 3,700 of whom are employed as 
artisans, receiving 16, 20, and 25 cents, and a small 
number 32 and 44 cents, an hour. The standard 
rate of the West Indian laborer is 10 cents an hour, 
but a few of these doing work of an exceptional 
character are paid 16 and 20 cents. The larger 
part of the Spaniards are paid 20 cents an hour, 
and the rest 16 cents an hour. 

The material and supply branch carries. in eight 
general storehouses a stock of supplies for the 
Commission and Panama Railroad valued approxi- 
mately at $4,500,000. About $12,000,000 worth of 
supplies are purchased annually, requiring the dis- 
charge of one steamer each day. 



22 



FOOD, CLOTHING AND OTHER NECES- 
SARIES 

The Canal and Panama Railroad forces are sup- 
plied with food, clothing and other necessaries 
through the Subsistence Department, which is 
divided into two branches — Commissary and Hotel. 
It does a business of about $7,500,000 per annum. 
The business done by the Commissary Department 
amounts to about $6,000,000 per annum, and that 
done by the hotel branch to about $1,500,000 per 
annum. 

The Commissary system consists of 22 general 
stores in as many Canal Zone villages and camps 
along the relocated line of the Panama Railroad. 
It is estimated that with employes and their depend- 
ents, there are about 65,000 people supplied daily 
with food, clothing, and other necessaries. In addi- 
tion to the retail stores, the following plants are 
operated at Cristobal : cold storage, ice making, 
bakery, coffee roasting, ice cream, laundry and 
packing department. 

A supply train of 21 cars leaves Cristobal every 



morning at 4 a. m. It is composed of refrigerator 
cars containing ice, meats and other perishable 
articles, and ten containing other supplies. These 
are delivered at the stations along the line and dis- 
tributed to the houses of employes by the Quarter- 
master's Department. 

The hotel branch maintains the Hotel Tivoli at 
Ancon, and also 18 hotels along the line for white 
gold employes at which meals are served for thirty 
cents each. At these 18 hotels there are served 
monthly about 200,000 meals. There are sixteen 
messes for European laborers, who pay 40 cents 
per ration of three meals. There are served at 
these messes about 270,000 meals per month. There 
are also operated for the West Indian laborers 
fourteen kitchens, at which they are served a ration 
of three meals for 27 cents per ration. There are 
about 100,000 meals served monthly at these 
kitchens. The supplies for one month for the line 
hotels, messes and kitchens cost about $85,000; 
labor and other expenses about $17,500. The 
monthly receipts, exclusive of the revenue from the 
Hotel Tivoli, amount to about $105,000. 



23 



PANAMA CANAL STATISTICS 



Length from deep water to deep water 
Bottom width of channel, maximum 

(feet) 1,000 

Bottom width of channel, minimum, 9 

miles, Culebra Cut ( feet) 300 

Locks, in pairs 12 

Locks, usable length ( feet) 1,000 

Locks, usable width (feet) no 

Gatun Lake, area (square miles) 164 

Gatun Lake, channel depth (feet) 85 to 45 

Culebra Cut, channel depth ( feet) 45 

Excavation, estimated total (cubic yds.). 242, 135,000 
Excavation, amount accomplished by 

Americans September 30, 1912 (cubic 

yards) 180,423,874 

Excavation by the French, useful to 

present Canal (cubic yards) 29,908,000 

Total excavation by the French (cubic 

yards) 78,146,960 

Excavation by the French, estimated 

value to Canal $25,389,240 



Value of all French property $42,799,826 

Concrete, total estimated for Canal 

(cubic yards) 5,000,000 

Time of transit through completed Canal 

(hours) 10 to 12 

Time of passage through locks (hours) . 3 

Relocated Panama Railroad, estimated 

cost $ 9,000,000 

Relocated Panama Railroad, length 

(miles) 47- 1 

Canal Zone, area (square miles) 448 

Canal and Panama Railroad force ac- 
tually at work May 1, 19 12 (about) . . 3 5, 000 
Canal and Panama Railroad force, 

Americans (about) 5,000 

Cost of Canal, estimated total $375,000,000 

Work begun by Americans May 4, 1904 

Date of completion, official Jan. 1, 1915 

Excavation remaining to be done Oct. 1, 

1912, estimated (cubic yards) 31,803,126 



24 



VALUE OF THE $40,000,000 FRENCH 
PURCHASE 

A careful official estimate has been made by the 
Canal Commission of the value to the Commission 
of the .franchises, equipment, material, work done, 
and property of various kinds for which the United 
States paid the French Canal Company $40,000,- 
000. It places the total value at $42,799,826, 
divided as follows : 

Excavation, useful to the Canal, 29,- 

708,000 cubic yards $25,389,240.00 

Panama Railroad Stock 9,644,320.00 

Plant and material, used and sold for 

scrap 2,112,063.00 

Buildings, used 2,054,203.00 

Surveys, plans, maps and records . . . 2,000,000.00 

Land 1,000,000.00 

Clearings, roads, etc 100,000.00 

Ship channel in Panama Bay, four 

years' use 500,000.00 

Total $42,799,826.00 



THE CANAL ZONE 

The Canal Zone contains about 448 square miles. 
It begins at a point three marine miles from mean 
low water mark in each ocean, and extends for 
five miles on each side of the center line of the 
route of the Canal. It includes the group of 
islands in the Bay of Panama named Perico, Naos, 
Culebra, and Flamenco. The cities of Panama and 
Colon are excluded from the Zone, but the United 
States has the right to enforce sanitary ordinances 
in those cities, and to maintain public order in them 
in case the Republic of Panama should not be 
able, in the judgment of the United States, to do so. 

Of the 448 square miles of Zone territory, the 
United States owns the larger portion, the exact 
amount of which is being determined by survey. 
Under the treaty with Panama, the United States 
has the right to acquire by purchase, or by the exer- 
cise of the right of eminent domain, any lands, 
buildings, water rights, or other properties neces- 
sary and convenient for the construction, main- 
tenance, operation, sanitation, and protection of the 
Canal, and it can, therefore, at any time acquire the 
lands within the Zone boundaries which are owned 
by private persons. 



25 



i 




— Photo by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y 



Bird's-eye View; of City of Panama. — New University of Panama on Left of Picture and Reservoir in Foreground. 




— Photo by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y 

View Showing East Chamber, Lower and Middle Locks at Gatun, with Section of Rack Track on East Wall. 

Photographed March 14, 1912. 




Cylindrical Valve Machine, Motor, and Limit Switch. Electricity Is Used to Operate All Gates and Valves 

Along the Canal. 




Miraflores Upper Locks, Center Wall Culvert, Showing Stoney Gate Castings in Place. Photographed 

June 23, 1912. 




Rising Stem Gate Valve Machine. The Average Time of Filling and Emptying a Lock Will Be About 
teen Minutes. The Valve System Will Furnish Perfect Control of the Water Flow. 



Fif- 




Pedro Miguel Locks, Detail of Construction of Electric Towing Locomotive Rack Track. All Vessels Will Be 

Towed by Electricity Through the Canal. 




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Front Tower, Range 5-6, Atlantic Division. These Range Lights Form an Important Feature of the Navigation 

Facilities of the Canal System. 




Front Tower, Range 9-11, Pacific Entrance Looking Southeast. Photographed November 7, 1911, and Show- 
ing the Reinforced Concrete Construction of the Lighthouses. 




Rear Tower, Range 9-1 1, Pacific Entrance, Looking Northwest. This Is One of the Efficient Range Lights that 
Will Make the Navigation of the Canal Safe and Easy, Night and Day. 




Gatun Spillway Looking Southwest, Showing Downstream Face of Ogee Dam, as it Appeared June 6, 1912. 




South End of Naos Island Dump, 4,000 Feet from Island. Center at "A" is 75 Feet from Track and 25 Feet Above 
the Original Bottom. Elevation of Trestle, +14. Photographed December, 1911. 




Stripping Cocoli Hill Adjacent to Canal Prism. Photographed March 21, 1912, and Showing the Method of hydraulic 

Excavation. 



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Gaum Upper Locks, West Chamber, Looking North, Showing Upper Guard Gates, Operating Gates, Intermediate 

Gates, and Safety Gates in Process of Construction, June 7, 1912. 



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Gatun Upper Locks, East Chamber, Looking North from Forebay, Showing Upper Guard Gates and Emergency 
Dam Sill, July 7, 1912. The Lock Gates Are Steel Structures 7 Feet Thick and Weigh from 300 to 

600 Tons Each, 




Gatun Upper Locks, Looking North from Lighthouse, as They Appeared July 2, 1912. The Three Pairs of Locks at 

Gatun Have a Combined Lift of 85 feet. 




Pedro Miguel Locks, South End of East Chamber, Showing Construction of Safety and Lower Gates as 
They Appeared June 3, 1912. See Model of These Locks on Page 17. 




Gatun Lower Locks Looking South fom Cofferdam, Showing West Chambers of Upper and Middle Locks, 

as They Appeared on November 9, 1911. 




Gatun Upper Locks, Miter Gate Moving Machine, Structural Steel Girders for Towing Locomotive Track 
Supports in Foreground. This Photograph Was Taken in June, 1912. 




Gatun Locks Forebay, East Side Looking North, Showing Flaring Approach Wall. Photographed June 7, 1912. 




Gatun Dam, West Section of Dam Looking West, Showing Progress of Hydraulic Fill, June iz, 1912. This Great 
Dam Is Nearly T.y z Miles Long and About Y z Mile Wide at Its Base, 




Culebra Cut, South End, Looking South from Bridge 57 }4 and Showing the Partly Completed Anchorage Basin 
North of Pedro Miguel Lock. Train Is on Completed Bottom of Canal, Elevation +40. Photo- 
graphed June, 1912. 




Gatun Spillway Looking East Toward Locks, Showing Up and Down Stream Faces of Ogee Dam, June 6, 1912. 
The Spillway Will Be Used to Regulate the Water Level of Gatun Lake. 




Culebra Cut Looking North from Las Cascadas. All Trains Are Standing on the Bottom of the Cut, Elevation +40. 

Photographed May, 1912. 




Culebra Cut Looking North from Bridge 57^2, Near Paraiso. The Train on the Left, Just Beyond the Trestle Bridge, 
Is on the Completed Bottom of the Canal, Elevation +40. Photographed June, 1912, 




Culebra Cut, Looking South from Empire Suspension Bridge. The Group of Well Drills in the Middle of the Canal 
Is About 27 Feet Above the Bottom, or at Elevation +67, Photographed May, 1912. 




Pedro Miguel Locks. Bird's-eye View from Hill on East Bank. The Photograph Was Taken July 28, 1912. 



Mil 





Culebra Cut, Culebra. Break in East Bank of Canal. Amount of Material Involved, 320,000 Cubic Yards. The Train 
Shown in Foreground Is About 35 Feet Above the Bottom, or at Elevation +75. Photographed February 11, igi2. 




Pedro Miguel Locks. Bird's-eye View of North Approach Wall from Hill at East End, 

as It Appeared July 28, 1912. 




Miraflores Locks Looking North, as They Appeared June 21, 1912. See Description of Locks on pages 14 to 18. 




Miraflores Locks, West Chamber, Looking South. Photographed June 23, 1912. Each Lock Has a Usable Length 

of 1,000 Feet and Width of no Feet. 




Pedro Miguel Locks, Looking South. West Forebay, with Emergency Dam Sill. Photographed June 5, 1912. See 

Model of Locks on Page 17. 




Slide of Stratified Rock, West Bank of Canal, Culebra-on-the-Dump, Looking Toward Culebra. Slide Involves About 
1,000,000 Cubic Yards and Moved About 3 Feet Per Day on a Slope of 1 Vertical to 7 Horizontal. The 
Train Is Standing at Elevation +95. Photographed February, 19.12. 







Miraflores Upper Locks. General View Looking North from Lower West Bank, Showing Cylindrical Valves 

Photographed July 25, 191 1. 




Pedro Miguel Locks, North End of West Chamber Showing Construction of Upper Guard Gates and Upper 

Gates, as They Appeared June 5, 1912. 




Balboa — Lumber Dock of Reinforced Concrete, Looking Northeast. June, 1912. This Pacific Port at the South- 
western End of the Canal Will Benefit Largely from Its Construction. 




Slide in East Bank of Canal Near Cucaracha, June, 1912. This Illustrates One of the Difficulties with Which 
the Engineers and Construction Department Have Had to Contend. 




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Culebra Cut Looking South from Bend in East Bank Near Gamboa. The Train and Shovel Are Standing on the Bot- 
tom of the Cut. The Water in the Drainage Channel Is About 10 Feet Below the Bottom of the 
Canal, or at Elevation +30. Photographed June, 1912. 



i 




Empire-Chorrera 16-Foot Macadam Road Under Construction with Zone Prison Labor, as It Appeared August 29, 1912. 




Pedro Miguel Locks Looking North, Showing Upper Guard Gates, East Chamber Forebay, and Construction 
of Approach Wall. The Scene Was Photographed March 28, 1912. 




Steam Shovel 218 Buried Under Fall of Rock, West Side of Canal, Near Las Cascadas. This Shovel Was Working on 

the Bottom of the Canal When Destroyed, May 31, 1912. 




Miraflores Upper Locks, Showing Stoney Gate Valve Frames in Position in South End of West Wall. 

Photographed November 8, 191 1. 




West Breakwater, Looking Seaward from Toro Point, Showing Dredge at Work Placing Rock on Face of Break- 
water. Photographed June, 1912. 




Gatun Lower Lock, East Chamber, Looking North, Showing Temporary Cofferdam at Extreme End of Lock 

Chamber. The View Was Taken June 12, 1912. 








Gatun Locks. General View Looking Southwest, Showing North End of the Locks, with Temporary 

Cofferdam in Place. Photographed July 2, 1912. 




Heated Material on the West Side of the Canal, 350 Yards North of Culebra y. Extent of Heated Material 

500' x 25' x 20'. Photographed February 16, 1912. 




Culebra Cut, Looking North from Empire Suspension Bridge. The Nearest Shovel Shown, in the Lowest Cut, Is 
Working About 12 Feet Above the Bottom, or at Elevation +52. The Photograph Was Taken in May, igi2. 




Culebra Cut Looking North from Cunette. The Two Shovels Shown in the Foreground Are Working on the 
Bottom, Elevation +40. The Water Standing in the Center Drainage Channel Is About 6 Feet Below the 

Bottom, Elevation +34. Photographed in June, 1912. 




South End of Naos Island Dump, 4,000 Feet from Island. Center at "A" Is 80 Feet from Track and 25 Feet Above 
the Original Bottom. Elevation of Trestle, +14. Photographed in December, 1911. 




Miraflores Lower Locks. Slide Back of West Wall, Looking South, as It Appeared March 21, igi2. 




Miraflores Locks. Sinking Caissons for Foundation of North Approach Wall, Looking North, June 14, 1912. 




Columnar Structure in Hardened Flows of Mud Lava. This Jointing Afforded Passages for Seepage Water Which 
Tended Largely to Promote a Large Slide Just North of La Pita. 




Fault Plane. "B" Crushed and Sheared Zone of Rock. "C" Stronger Rocks, Beds of Limy Sandstone. This 
Fault Was the Chief Cause of the Big Slide on the West (Opposite) Side of the Canal Near Lirio. 



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Rear Tower, Lighthouse, Range 3-4. (9-1 1) Pacific Entrance of the Canal at Low Tide. Front Tower. 




Gatun Locks and Dam, Looking West from Water Tower, Show ing South Center Approach Wall and Forebay 
of Gatun Locks, with Dam and Spillway in the Distance. Photographed June, 1912. 




Gatun Spillway Looking Southwest, Showing Downstream Face of Ogee Dam, as it Appeared June 6, 191= 




Culebra Cut Looking South from Cunette. The Two Shoveels Shown in the Foreground Are Working on the Bottom 

of the Canal, Elevation +40. Photographed in May, 1912. 



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Culebra Cut, Looking North from a Point South of Contractor's Hill, Showing Quiescent State of the Great Cucaracha 

Slide on Right Bank. Photographed May, 1912. 




Channel Excavated at San Fablo During Dry Season, 1912. This Channel Is Completed and Is 800 Feet Wids 

Bottom Elevation at +40. 



With 




Embankment of Old Panama Railroad Excavated Down to +35 in April and May, 1912, 




General View of Balboa Terminal Site, Looking North, June, 1912. 




Dredge "Corozal" in Channel Near Station 2210 of the Canal Operations. Photographed in June, 1912. 




Mandingo Stockade for Zone Convicts Engaged in Road Building. The Photograph Was Made in August, 1912. 



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